LECTURE SEVEN (VI)

TEACHING STRATEGIES

AND CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES

By Alec

2.     CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES

To prepare for this course, I have read many huge books on classroom techniques; however, I am not going to tell you all that is mentioned in those books; instead, I’d prefer to give you a very brief and general introduction, simply because all of you are very experienced teachers in the English language teaching . Besides, I’d like to ask a favor of you, to give me help in any way—criticism, suggestion, or anything else. I’d be grateful.

(1) Techniques of Presentation

As a teacher, we have to keep in mind what the learner sees when he opens his textbook, how much of the language it teaches him, how the forms and meanings are taught, and whether the quality and quantity of the teaching varies from one part of the text to the other. Teaching a language involves both expression and content.

Expression Techniques

These involve staging and demonstration:

Staging covers the number of forms of the language included in the method and the number of stages into which these are divided, the order in which these are taught, the spacing between them and the units (lessons) into which their presentation is divided. In assessing his demonstration, the teaching must ask himself these questions. How does the method present the forms which it includes? Are the words presented in sentences or as isolated words? Does the teacher give a spoken or written model for each new form presented? The main requirement of a spoken model is that it is clear and audible—it is believed that the must learner must hear the foreign language a least two or five times more distinctly than he hears his mother tongue. Is a check made on the learner’s auditory perception to make sure he is learning correctly the sounds which he is expected to make? Are sentences given in contexts? Is the rate of presentation geared to the class’s average rate of mental intake? When the number of errors to be corrected is very high, either the rate of presentation is too fast or the plan has been badly graded; if there are practically no mistakes to be corrected and learners show signs of restlessness or boredom, either the rate of presentation is too slow or again that plan has been badly graded.

Content Techniques

One of the most debated questions in language teaching methodology is how the meaning of words and phrases should be conveyed to the learner. The techniques used need to be suitable for the level of the class and to hold their interest. In addition to the different attitudes towards meaning, the method must also cope with different levels (lexical and structural) and with classes of words at each level, such as nouns, verbs, adverbs and even further divisions such as abstract nouns or concrete nouns. Each of these presents different problems. To cope with these variations a method may use all or some of the four possible procedures: differential, ostensive, pictorial or contextual.

(1)    Techniques of Repetition

In methodology, what is done to make the use of the language unconscious. The ultimate aim of a language-teaching course is to teach the learner to use the language accurately, fluently and independently. To achieve accuracy, errors or their repetition must be avoided; to achieve fluency, a great amount of practice is needed. Between controlled accuracy and fluency and the independent use of the language lie many types of repetition. All human acts are interrelated and tend to become habitual. They become habits, not in isolation, but as part of other acts. This is especially true of language. A habit is not established by one or two performances, but by many. The more often we perform a given act in a given arrangement, the more likely we are to repeat the act in the same arrangement. Linguistically, the more often an incorrect form is used, the more ingrained it becomes, even though the user knows it to be undesirable. The problem is to obtain the maximum amount of repetition with the minimum amount of mistakes. Preventing mistakes is better than correcting them. There are four types of repetition:

1.Incremental

In this type, each new utterance adds a new element to the structure. A new word or word group may be added with each repetition, requiring the learner each time to repeat longer and longer sentences. This kind of repetition does not necessarily involve the understanding of the meaning of what is uttered. Incremental repetition is used in expansion and addition drills and in sentence building exercises.

2.Operational

This is repetition considered as performance, as the operation of one of the language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). Here all the abilities comprising a particular language skill have to be co-ordinated into a complex of habits. This co-ordinated use must be constant if the skill is to be kept up, since a habit once acquired must be put to use. The operational type of repetition may be used in question/answer exercises, look-and-say drills, reproduction exercises, description, exposition, narration and translation.

3.Rote

The most rudimentary form of repetition. It is one where exactly the same forms are repeated again and again. Rote repetition may be used in listen-and-repeat drills, model dialogs, songs, oral reading, copying and transcription.

4.Variational

Here, sequences are repeated while changing their elements, one two or more at a time. The possible changes may be arranged in the form of chains or tables. The variation type of repetition is used in exercises of completion, conversion, transformation, transposition, multiple choice, inclusion, and restatement.

Besides, in practice we can further ask ourselves these questions about repetition:

How does the teacher execute that part of the lesson plan devoted to making the language a habit? How well does he drill speech reading and writing? The more speech practice a learner gets, the sooner he will become fluent in the language. Do all the learners participate in the talking or only some of them? For what proportion of the class time do learners do the talking? How much incorrect English does the learner hear? What is the proportion of chorus to individual responses? Does the teacher repeat with the class in chorus work or does he keep his attention on the performance of the learners?

(3) Techniques of Questioning

The importance of good questioning is obvious. Good questioning stimulates thought, leads to inquiry, and results in understanding and mastery. We have to keep to the principles of freedom from the textbook, unity or continuity in questions, clearness, and definiteness. Questions should be asked naturally, should be addressed to the entire class and, after all have had a moment to think, someone then designated to answer. No regular order should be followed in calling on students. It is highly important that questions shall be asked so that they demand thought in answering, and usually so that the answer must be given in full statement. About the treatment of answers, it is neither good pedagogy nor good manners for a teacher to sit unresponsive and inattentive when a student is reciting. The teacher should give absolutely no sign while the answer is going on. Answers should not be repeated by the teacher. Answers should be required in good English, clear and definite, like the questions. Here are some questions for us teachers to answer while giving a class:

Are the questions clear and to the point? Are the questions worded so as to produce unprofitable “yes/no” answers? Are the efforts of the learner given to answering the question or to finding out what it means? Are learners asked to speak on things for which they have no words? Is the learner invited to ask questions himself of the teacher and other learners?

Of all the questions used in the classroom, check questions is of the greatest importance. That is a question that the teacher asks in order to ascertain whether the students have understood the item or items being taught. It is not enough for the teacher to say to his class Do you understand? An affirmative response is no proof that the students have understood the item or items in question. The teacher should make questions and statements that will elicit responses clearly dependent upon a comprehension of the teaching points that are being presented.

(4) Techniques of Correcting

This is one of the most important classroom techniques. In the correcting of errors, there are three possibilities for the learner: he may hear his error and correct it; he may hear his error and not correct it ; he may neither hear it nor correct it. Does the teacher make sure he hears it and correct it? The longer the delay in correction, the harder it is to make the correction. Does the teacher concentrate on correcting one learner to the point of making the others lose interest? Does he concentrate on individuals or the group? If there are too many corrections to be made, what is the cause—the level of the course or the quality of the teaching?

(5) Reinforcement

In the first section of the psychology of learning, this is an additional signal designed to encourage a desired persistent change in behavior. Reinforcement includes an increase in language ability which assumed to result when a correct response is immediately confirmed as correct. The memory span of the learner is relatively short, so that learning is more certain and rapid if lessons are frequent; reinforcement of what has been learned should take place with as little delay as possible. Reinforcement is teacher’s approval and support. Rivers defines four kinds of reinforcement:

Decremental Reinforcement  

In decremental reinforcement, or a reward situation, relief is experienced as a sign that an impending objectionable event has been averted, or hope is aroused at a sign which indicates the imminent occurrence of some desired event.

Incremental Reinforcement  

In incremental reinforcement, or a punishment situation, fear is aroused by a sign which indicates imminent onset of a painful stimulus, or disappointment is aroused by withdrawal of a hope arousing sign before its confirmation.

Primary Reinforcement  

Food and water. Primary reinforcement reduces drives or tension states based on hunger and thirst.

Secondary Reinforcement

Praise, money, social acceptance, advancement in one’s position. Secondary reinforcement can be praise from the teacher or an ability to communicate meaningfully in the language being learned. After early childhood, secondary reinforcement, not primary, is the important element.

(6)Homework  Assignment

To ensure continuity and to give more necessary practice (further consolidation), appropriate homework or task should be given at the end of each lesson, or at least once or twice a week, depending on the amount of time the student is able or prepared to give up to homework study. All homework should be corrected by the teacher, either in the classroom or outside classroom hours. Uncorrected homework will create a negative attitude in the student, leading him eventually to believe that the teacher is not really interested in his progress. Giving marks for written work can help the student to assess how well he is doing and can serve as reinforcement (either because good marks tell him he is making satisfactory progress or because poor marks will tell him he must make a greater effort).

1. Homework in language teaching should be:

an additional practice on what has been done in class

a test of what has been previously learnt

an opportunity for written work

2. Before setting homework, consider:

the free time the students have to do it in

their level of attainment

their general level of ability

their purpose in learning the language

3. Some homework routines:

insist on regular and prompt homework—keep a check on work received

encourage students to keep their work

make sure students know exactly what to do

4. Marking and giving back homework:

mark and return it as soon as possible

devise an easily comprehensible marking scheme

be careful not to overmark

put encouraging brief comments at the end of the work whenever possible

be prepared to explain your corrections, either collectively to the class as a whole or individually

(7) Some General but Useful Hints

1.Know your students’ names as soon as possible.

2.Keep your whole class actively involved as much as you can.

3.When it is time for interrogation, vary your approach—don’t always begin questioning from the same point in the classroom; don’t always start with the same student but criss-cross about the classroom in a pattern that cannot be identified by the students.

4.Never make your students feel stupid or ignorant; if you want to make a joke at your student’s expense, that’s all right as long as he doesn’t mind his leg behind being pulled.

5.Be wary of topics such as politics, sex, race and religion which are very effective in getting discussion going on, as people often have strong feelings on them or find them interesting, but there is the danger of hostility being generated and the discussion getting out of control. This may result in permanent damage being done to the previously friendly atmosphere of the classroom.

6.If you teach in another region, respect the customs and conventions of the region; it is not for you to shock or try to change the society.

7.Do not ingratiate yourself with your class or you’ll begin to lose their respect.

8.Equally, do not act like a martinet.

9.Try to be fair and show equal interest in all your students, not just your favorites or those who make life easier by usually getting the answer right first time. Show interest in the weaker ones too—they need your encouragement and approval.

10.         Ask the brighter students more difficult questions; give the weaker ones less demanding work.

11.         Don’t allow yourself to be dominated by the student who always knows, or thinks he knows, the answer or who is always asking you questions or giving his opinion on the state of the world. He may not even realize he isn’t giving the others a chance.

12.         Try to involve potential troublemakers as much as possible in the classroom activities and never threaten what you know you cannot do.

13.         Restlessness or inattention on a general scale suggests the teacher is either laboring the point too much or that the material is too difficult or too easy.

14.         Remember the students want to respect you and they want to learn; you start off a class with a great fund of goodwill. Goodwill that is lost is extremely difficult to retrieve.